The fasting person can eat, drink, and have sexual intercourse until fajr

) The fasting person can eat, drink, and have sexual intercourse until fajr

If someone has food in his mouth when fajr is beginning, he should spit it out. If he is having intercourse (with his wife) at that time, he should immediately stop. If he does so, his fast will still be valid. If he continues in these actions at that time, he will have broken his fast. Al-Bukhari and Muslim record from Aishah that the Prophet said: "Bilal makes the call to prayer while it is still night; therefore, eat and drink until Ibn Umm Maktum makes the call to prayer."

(9) It is permissible for the fasting person to be Junub (sexually defiled or having had intercourse or a wet dream) at the time of Fajr (that is, a person is not required to perform ghusl before fajr)

Umm Salamah [the wife of the Prophet (S)] narrated that AbuBakr ibn AbdurRahman reported that Marwan sent him to Umm Salamah to ask whether a person should observe fast who is in a state of junaba and the dawn breaks upon him, whereupon she said that the Messenger of Allah (S) (was at times) junub on account of intercourse and not due to sexual dream, and the dawn broke upon him, but he neither broke the fast nor recompensed. [Muslim]

(10) Delaying the purifying ghusl (bath) from menstruation till after fajr (dawn) time.

If the blood of a menstruating woman or of a woman with post-childbirth bleeding stops during the night, she can delay ghusl until Fajr.

(11) Involuntary actions

Involuntary actions such as ejaculation in a wet dream or involuntary vomiting do not invalidate the fast [the case of vomiting has already been indicated in the hadith concerning intentional vomiting].

Rinsing the mouth and nose

6) Rinsing the mouth and nose

These acts are allowed in general, but it is disliked to exaggerate (that is, use a lot of water and put the water deep into the mouth or nose while fasting).

Laqit Ibn Sabra reported that the Prophet said: "Exaggerate when rinsing your nose unless you are fasting." [an-Nasa'i, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah; Sahih].

(7) Those things which one could not protect one's self from

Such as swallowing one's saliva [or sputum], the dust of the road, sifting flour and so on are all overlooked: Ibn 'Abbas ruling is that: "There is no problem with tasting liquid food or something you wish to purchase." Similarly one can taste food (when cooking) with the tongue without swallowing.

(8) The fasting person can eat, drink, and have sexual intercourse until fajr

If someone has food in his mouth when fajr is beginning, he should spit it out. If he is having intercourse (with his wife) at that time, he should immediately stop. If he does so, his fast will still be valid. If he continues in these actions at that time, he will have broken his fast. Al-Bukhari and Muslim record from Aishah that the Prophet said: "Bilal makes the call to prayer while it is still night; therefore, eat and drink until Ibn Umm Maktum makes the call to prayer."

(9) It is permissible for the fasting person to be Junub (sexually defiled or having had intercourse or a wet dream) at the time of Fajr (that is, a person is not required to perform ghusl before fajr)

Umm Salamah [the wife of the Prophet (S)] narrated that AbuBakr ibn AbdurRahman reported that Marwan sent him to Umm Salamah to ask whether a person should observe fast who is in a state of junaba and the dawn breaks upon him, whereupon she said that the Messenger of Allah (S) (was at times) junub on account of intercourse and not due to sexual dream, and the dawn broke upon him, but he neither broke the fast nor recompensed. [Muslim]

(10) Delaying the purifying ghusl (bath) from menstruation till after fajr (dawn) time.

If the blood of a menstruating woman or of a woman with post-childbirth bleeding stops during the night, she can delay ghusl until Fajr.

(11) Involuntary actions

Involuntary actions such as ejaculation in a wet dream or involuntary vomiting do not invalidate the fast [the case of vomiting has already been indicated in the hadith concerning intentional vomiting].

Kissing and foreplay for one who has the ability to control himself

3) Kissing and foreplay for one who has the ability to control himself


`Aishah (R) said :" The Prophet (S) would kiss and embrace [his wives] while he was fasting, for he had the most control of all of you over his desires" [Bukhari and Muslim]

Aisha said, "Allah's Apostle used to kiss some of his wives while he was fasting," and then she smiled. [Bukhari]

Zainab (daughter of Ummu Salama) reported that her mother said, "While I was (lying) with Allah's Messenger underneath a woolen sheet, I got the menstruation, and then slipped away and put on the clothes (which I used to wear) in menses. He asked, "What is the matter? Did you get your menses?" I replied in the affirmative and then entered underneath that woolen sheet. I and Allah's Messenger used to take a bath from one water pot and he used to kiss me while he was fasting." [Bukhari]

Umar asked the Messenger of Allah (peace_be_upon_him): Should one observing fast kiss (his wife)? The Messenger of Allah (S) said to him: Ask her (Ummu Salamah). She informed him that the Messenger of Allah (S) did that, whereupon he said: Messenger of Allah, Allah pardoned you all your sins, the previous and the later ones. Upon this the Messenger of Allah (S) said: By Allah, I am the most God-conscious among you and I fear Him most among you. [Muslim]

This is permissible even if it led to some pre-seminal fluid secretions. Jabir said: "The person who gets discharge after casting a look (on his wife) should complete his fast." [Bukhari].

However, young men or women are discouraged to kiss or have foreplay as it may lead to loss of control.

Abdullah Ibn `Amr Ibn al-`Aas said: "We were with the Prophet (S) when a youth came and said: 'May I kiss [my wife] while I am fasting?' He (the Prophet (S)) said: 'No'. Then an old man came and said: 'May I kiss [my wife] while I am fasting?' He said: 'Yes'. So we began looking at one another, so Allah's Messenger (S) said: 'The old man is able to control himself'. [Ahmad; Hasan]

(4) Injections, eye and ear drops

Medically required injections, eye and ear drops and medications placed on wounds, as long as they are not for nourishing purposes they do not invalidate the fast even if one finds a taste in the throat as Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim observed.

(5) Cupping (Hijaamah) and blood-letting [or donation] for medical purposes

This used to be an act that breaks the fast. The Prophet (S) said "The cupper [al-Hajim] and the cupped [al-Mahjoum] have broken the fast" [Sahih al-Jami`]. However, this was abrogated later as the The Prophet (S) did it while fasting.

Ibn Abbas said: "The Prophet was cupped while he was in the state of Ihram, and also while he was observing a fast." [Bukhari]

Anas Ibn Malik was asked whether they disliked the cupping for a fasting person. He replied in the negative and said, "Only if it causes weakness." [Bukhari]

Vivisection follows the same ruling as cupping as well as nose or throat bleeding, or bleeding caused by pulling a tooth.

(6) Rinsing the mouth and nose

These acts are allowed in general, but it is disliked to exaggerate (that is, use a lot of water and put the water deep into the mouth or nose while fasting).

Laqit Ibn Sabra reported that the Prophet said: "Exaggerate when rinsing your nose unless you are fasting." [an-Nasa'i, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah; Sahih].

(7) Those things which one could not protect one's self from

Such as swallowing one's saliva [or sputum], the dust of the road, sifting flour and so on are all overlooked: Ibn 'Abbas ruling is that: "There is no problem with tasting liquid food or something you wish to purchase." Similarly one can taste food (when cooking) with the tongue without swallowing.

(8) The fasting person can eat, drink, and have sexual intercourse until fajr

If someone has food in his mouth when fajr is beginning, he should spit it out. If he is having intercourse (with his wife) at that time, he should immediately stop. If he does so, his fast will still be valid. If he continues in these actions at that time, he will have broken his fast. Al-Bukhari and Muslim record from Aishah that the Prophet said: "Bilal makes the call to prayer while it is still night; therefore, eat and drink until Ibn Umm Maktum makes the call to prayer."

(9) It is permissible for the fasting person to be Junub (sexually defiled or having had intercourse or a wet dream) at the time of Fajr (that is, a person is not required to perform ghusl before fajr)

Umm Salamah [the wife of the Prophet (S)] narrated that AbuBakr ibn AbdurRahman reported that Marwan sent him to Umm Salamah to ask whether a person should observe fast who is in a state of junaba and the dawn breaks upon him, whereupon she said that the Messenger of Allah (S) (was at times) junub on account of intercourse and not due to sexual dream, and the dawn broke upon him, but he neither broke the fast nor recompensed. [Muslim]

(10) Delaying the purifying ghusl (bath) from menstruation till after fajr (dawn) time.

If the blood of a menstruating woman or of a woman with post-childbirth bleeding stops during the night, she can delay ghusl until Fajr.

(11) Involuntary actions

Involuntary actions such as ejaculation in a wet dream or involuntary vomiting do not invalidate the fast [the case of vomiting has already been indicated in the hadith concerning intentional vomiting].

Applying Kohl(*) or eye-drop or anything to the eyes

(2) Applying Kohl(*) or eye-drop or anything to the eyes

It is the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah (S) to apply Kohl to his eyes (unfortunately this practice has been abandoned by Muslim men of this age). There are reports of many Sahaba applying Kohl while fasting, among them Anas who did not see any harm in use of Kohl for the fasting person. [Bukhari].

Similar is wearing or smelling perfumes.

(*)A black substance applied to the rims of the eyelids

) Pouring water over one's self and submerging one's self in water

) Pouring water over one's self and submerging one's self in water

Abu Bakr ibn 'Abdurrahman reported from a number of companions that they had seen Allah's Messenger pour water over his head while he was fasting due to thirst or extreme heat. [Ahmad, Malik and Abu Dawud; Sahih]. Al-Hasan al-Basri said: "There is no harm in rinsing the mouth and cooling ones body with cold water when fasting". Similarly, one can have a bath or swim without invalidating his fast.

(2) Applying Kohl(*) or eye-drop or anything to the eyes

It is the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah (S) to apply Kohl to his eyes (unfortunately this practice has been abandoned by Muslim men of this age). There are reports of many Sahaba applying Kohl while fasting, among them Anas who did not see any harm in use of Kohl for the fasting person. [Bukhari].

Similar is wearing or smelling perfumes.

(*)A black substance applied to the rims of the eyelids

(3) Kissing and foreplay for one who has the ability to control himself


`Aishah (R) said :" The Prophet (S) would kiss and embrace [his wives] while he was fasting, for he had the most control of all of you over his desires" [Bukhari and Muslim]

Aisha said, "Allah's Apostle used to kiss some of his wives while he was fasting," and then she smiled. [Bukhari]

Zainab (daughter of Ummu Salama) reported that her mother said, "While I was (lying) with Allah's Messenger underneath a woolen sheet, I got the menstruation, and then slipped away and put on the clothes (which I used to wear) in menses. He asked, "What is the matter? Did you get your menses?" I replied in the affirmative and then entered underneath that woolen sheet. I and Allah's Messenger used to take a bath from one water pot and he used to kiss me while he was fasting." [Bukhari]

Umar asked the Messenger of Allah (peace_be_upon_him): Should one observing fast kiss (his wife)? The Messenger of Allah (S) said to him: Ask her (Ummu Salamah). She informed him that the Messenger of Allah (S) did that, whereupon he said: Messenger of Allah, Allah pardoned you all your sins, the previous and the later ones. Upon this the Messenger of Allah (S) said: By Allah, I am the most God-conscious among you and I fear Him most among you. [Muslim]

This is permissible even if it led to some pre-seminal fluid secretions. Jabir said: "The person who gets discharge after casting a look (on his wife) should complete his fast." [Bukhari].

However, young men or women are discouraged to kiss or have foreplay as it may lead to loss of control.

Abdullah Ibn `Amr Ibn al-`Aas said: "We were with the Prophet (S) when a youth came and said: 'May I kiss [my wife] while I am fasting?' He (the Prophet (S)) said: 'No'. Then an old man came and said: 'May I kiss [my wife] while I am fasting?' He said: 'Yes'. So we began looking at one another, so Allah's Messenger (S) said: 'The old man is able to control himself'. [Ahmad; Hasan]

(4) Injections, eye and ear drops

Medically required injections, eye and ear drops and medications placed on wounds, as long as they are not for nourishing purposes they do not invalidate the fast even if one finds a taste in the throat as Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim observed.

(5) Cupping (Hijaamah) and blood-letting [or donation] for medical purposes

This used to be an act that breaks the fast. The Prophet (S) said "The cupper [al-Hajim] and the cupped [al-Mahjoum] have broken the fast" [Sahih al-Jami`]. However, this was abrogated later as the The Prophet (S) did it while fasting.

Ibn Abbas said: "The Prophet was cupped while he was in the state of Ihram, and also while he was observing a fast." [Bukhari]

Anas Ibn Malik was asked whether they disliked the cupping for a fasting person. He replied in the negative and said, "Only if it causes weakness." [Bukhari]

Vivisection follows the same ruling as cupping as well as nose or throat bleeding, or bleeding caused by pulling a tooth.

(6) Rinsing the mouth and nose

These acts are allowed in general, but it is disliked to exaggerate (that is, use a lot of water and put the water deep into the mouth or nose while fasting).

Laqit Ibn Sabra reported that the Prophet said: "Exaggerate when rinsing your nose unless you are fasting." [an-Nasa'i, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah; Sahih].

(7) Those things which one could not protect one's self from

Such as swallowing one's saliva [or sputum], the dust of the road, sifting flour and so on are all overlooked: Ibn 'Abbas ruling is that: "There is no problem with tasting liquid food or something you wish to purchase." Similarly one can taste food (when cooking) with the tongue without swallowing.

(8) The fasting person can eat, drink, and have sexual intercourse until fajr

If someone has food in his mouth when fajr is beginning, he should spit it out. If he is having intercourse (with his wife) at that time, he should immediately stop. If he does so, his fast will still be valid. If he continues in these actions at that time, he will have broken his fast. Al-Bukhari and Muslim record from Aishah that the Prophet said: "Bilal makes the call to prayer while it is still night; therefore, eat and drink until Ibn Umm Maktum makes the call to prayer."

(9) It is permissible for the fasting person to be Junub (sexually defiled or having had intercourse or a wet dream) at the time of Fajr (that is, a person is not required to perform ghusl before fajr)

Umm Salamah [the wife of the Prophet (S)] narrated that AbuBakr ibn AbdurRahman reported that Marwan sent him to Umm Salamah to ask whether a person should observe fast who is in a state of junaba and the dawn breaks upon him, whereupon she said that the Messenger of Allah (S) (was at times) junub on account of intercourse and not due to sexual dream, and the dawn broke upon him, but he neither broke the fast nor recompensed. [Muslim]

(10) Delaying the purifying ghusl (bath) from menstruation till after fajr (dawn) time.

If the blood of a menstruating woman or of a woman with post-childbirth bleeding stops during the night, she can delay ghusl until Fajr.

(11) Involuntary actions

Involuntary actions such as ejaculation in a wet dream or involuntary vomiting do not invalidate the fast [the case of vomiting has already been indicated in the hadith concerning intentional vomiting].

Acts That are Permissible During the Fast

Acts That are Permissible During the Fast

(1) Pouring water over one's self and submerging one's self in water

Abu Bakr ibn 'Abdurrahman reported from a number of companions that they had seen Allah's Messenger pour water over his head while he was fasting due to thirst or extreme heat. [Ahmad, Malik and Abu Dawud; Sahih]. Al-Hasan al-Basri said: "There is no harm in rinsing the mouth and cooling ones body with cold water when fasting". Similarly, one can have a bath or swim without invalidating his fast.

(2) Applying Kohl(*) or eye-drop or anything to the eyes

It is the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah (S) to apply Kohl to his eyes (unfortunately this practice has been abandoned by Muslim men of this age). There are reports of many Sahaba applying Kohl while fasting, among them Anas who did not see any harm in use of Kohl for the fasting person. [Bukhari].

Similar is wearing or smelling perfumes.

(*)A black substance applied to the rims of the eyelids

(3) Kissing and foreplay for one who has the ability to control himself


`Aishah (R) said :" The Prophet (S) would kiss and embrace [his wives] while he was fasting, for he had the most control of all of you over his desires" [Bukhari and Muslim]

Aisha said, "Allah's Apostle used to kiss some of his wives while he was fasting," and then she smiled. [Bukhari]

Zainab (daughter of Ummu Salama) reported that her mother said, "While I was (lying) with Allah's Messenger underneath a woolen sheet, I got the menstruation, and then slipped away and put on the clothes (which I used to wear) in menses. He asked, "What is the matter? Did you get your menses?" I replied in the affirmative and then entered underneath that woolen sheet. I and Allah's Messenger used to take a bath from one water pot and he used to kiss me while he was fasting." [Bukhari]

Umar asked the Messenger of Allah (peace_be_upon_him): Should one observing fast kiss (his wife)? The Messenger of Allah (S) said to him: Ask her (Ummu Salamah). She informed him that the Messenger of Allah (S) did that, whereupon he said: Messenger of Allah, Allah pardoned you all your sins, the previous and the later ones. Upon this the Messenger of Allah (S) said: By Allah, I am the most God-conscious among you and I fear Him most among you. [Muslim]

This is permissible even if it led to some pre-seminal fluid secretions. Jabir said: "The person who gets discharge after casting a look (on his wife) should complete his fast." [Bukhari].

However, young men or women are discouraged to kiss or have foreplay as it may lead to loss of control.

Abdullah Ibn `Amr Ibn al-`Aas said: "We were with the Prophet (S) when a youth came and said: 'May I kiss [my wife] while I am fasting?' He (the Prophet (S)) said: 'No'. Then an old man came and said: 'May I kiss [my wife] while I am fasting?' He said: 'Yes'. So we began looking at one another, so Allah's Messenger (S) said: 'The old man is able to control himself'. [Ahmad; Hasan]

(4) Injections, eye and ear drops

Medically required injections, eye and ear drops and medications placed on wounds, as long as they are not for nourishing purposes they do not invalidate the fast even if one finds a taste in the throat as Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim observed.

(5) Cupping (Hijaamah) and blood-letting [or donation] for medical purposes

This used to be an act that breaks the fast. The Prophet (S) said "The cupper [al-Hajim] and the cupped [al-Mahjoum] have broken the fast" [Sahih al-Jami`]. However, this was abrogated later as the The Prophet (S) did it while fasting.

Ibn Abbas said: "The Prophet was cupped while he was in the state of Ihram, and also while he was observing a fast." [Bukhari]

Anas Ibn Malik was asked whether they disliked the cupping for a fasting person. He replied in the negative and said, "Only if it causes weakness." [Bukhari]

Vivisection follows the same ruling as cupping as well as nose or throat bleeding, or bleeding caused by pulling a tooth.

(6) Rinsing the mouth and nose

These acts are allowed in general, but it is disliked to exaggerate (that is, use a lot of water and put the water deep into the mouth or nose while fasting).

Laqit Ibn Sabra reported that the Prophet said: "Exaggerate when rinsing your nose unless you are fasting." [an-Nasa'i, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah; Sahih].

(7) Those things which one could not protect one's self from

Such as swallowing one's saliva [or sputum], the dust of the road, sifting flour and so on are all overlooked: Ibn 'Abbas ruling is that: "There is no problem with tasting liquid food or something you wish to purchase." Similarly one can taste food (when cooking) with the tongue without swallowing.

(8) The fasting person can eat, drink, and have sexual intercourse until fajr

If someone has food in his mouth when fajr is beginning, he should spit it out. If he is having intercourse (with his wife) at that time, he should immediately stop. If he does so, his fast will still be valid. If he continues in these actions at that time, he will have broken his fast. Al-Bukhari and Muslim record from Aishah that the Prophet said: "Bilal makes the call to prayer while it is still night; therefore, eat and drink until Ibn Umm Maktum makes the call to prayer."

(9) It is permissible for the fasting person to be Junub (sexually defiled or having had intercourse or a wet dream) at the time of Fajr (that is, a person is not required to perform ghusl before fajr)

Umm Salamah [the wife of the Prophet (S)] narrated that AbuBakr ibn AbdurRahman reported that Marwan sent him to Umm Salamah to ask whether a person should observe fast who is in a state of junaba and the dawn breaks upon him, whereupon she said that the Messenger of Allah (S) (was at times) junub on account of intercourse and not due to sexual dream, and the dawn broke upon him, but he neither broke the fast nor recompensed. [Muslim]

(10) Delaying the purifying ghusl (bath) from menstruation till after fajr (dawn) time.

If the blood of a menstruating woman or of a woman with post-childbirth bleeding stops during the night, she can delay ghusl until Fajr.

(11) Involuntary actions

Involuntary actions such as ejaculation in a wet dream or involuntary vomiting do not invalidate the fast [the case of vomiting has already been indicated in the hadith concerning intentional vomiting].

Involuntarily events that break the fast

Involuntarily events that break the fast

The fast is disrupted (and there is no point or reward then in continuing to fast) when a woman sees the blood caused by either of:

1-Menstruation
2-post-childbirth bleeding

Even if such bleeding begins just before the sunset, the fast of that day is rendered invalid. A woman in this case will have to fast a day later (qadha') for every day (or part of day) that she missed.

If a menstruating woman becomes Tahira (ceases bleeding) before dawn, then she takes her Ghusl (purifying shower) and intends to fast the next day. However, if she becomes Tahira after fajr then she takes her ghusl, and starts praying as usual and the day has to made up after Ramadan. She may eat and drink during that day as it is an invalid day as Shaikh Ibn Otheimin observed.

The Prophet (S) said: "Is it not that when she [the woman] menstruates, she does not pray nor fast?" We said : Yes indeed. He said: "That is the deficiency in her Deen [religion]. In another narration: "She remains not praying at night and refraining from fasting in Ramadan, that is the deficiency in her Deen".[Muslim]

The order to make up for the days of menstruation is reported in the lesson `Aishah gave to Mu`aathah who came and asked her "Why is it that the menstruating woman has to make up her fasts but not the prayers?" `Aisha said: "Are you a Harooree(*) woman?" I (Mu`aathah) said: "I am not a Harooree woman, but I wish to ask". `Aisha said: "That used to come upon us and so we were ordered to make up the fasts and were never ordered to make up the prayers" [Bukhari and Muslim]

(*)Haroorees are the people of Haroora near Koofa [Iraq]. They had the belief of Khawarij who fought Ali radhiya Allahu `anh. They make it obligatory on the woian to make up her prayers if she menstruates. `Aisha feared that Mu`aathah was among them

Injections containing nourishment

Injections containing nourishment

Though this type of action is committed intentionally and thus falls under intentional eating and drinking, it is not considered as a sin if given to a sick person in need of it. All what is needed is to make up the day later. These injections are meant to give nourishment intravenously so that it reaches the intestines, with the intention of nourishing the sick person. Also if the injection reaches the blood-stream then it likewise breaks the fast since it is being used in place of food and drink. Similar is the use of drips containing glucose and saline solutions, and inhalers used by people sick of asthma. May Allah relieve all sick believers.


Involuntarily events that break the fast

The fast is disrupted (and there is no point or reward then in continuing to fast) when a woman sees the blood caused by either of:

1-Menstruation
2-post-childbirth bleeding

Even if such bleeding begins just before the sunset, the fast of that day is rendered invalid. A woman in this case will have to fast a day later (qadha') for every day (or part of day) that she missed.

If a menstruating woman becomes Tahira (ceases bleeding) before dawn, then she takes her Ghusl (purifying shower) and intends to fast the next day. However, if she becomes Tahira after fajr then she takes her ghusl, and starts praying as usual and the day has to made up after Ramadan. She may eat and drink during that day as it is an invalid day as Shaikh Ibn Otheimin observed.

The Prophet (S) said: "Is it not that when she [the woman] menstruates, she does not pray nor fast?" We said : Yes indeed. He said: "That is the deficiency in her Deen [religion]. In another narration: "She remains not praying at night and refraining from fasting in Ramadan, that is the deficiency in her Deen".[Muslim]

The order to make up for the days of menstruation is reported in the lesson `Aishah gave to Mu`aathah who came and asked her "Why is it that the menstruating woman has to make up her fasts but not the prayers?" `Aisha said: "Are you a Harooree(*) woman?" I (Mu`aathah) said: "I am not a Harooree woman, but I wish to ask". `Aisha said: "That used to come upon us and so we were ordered to make up the fasts and were never ordered to make up the prayers" [Bukhari and Muslim]

(*)Haroorees are the people of Haroora near Koofa [Iraq]. They had the belief of Khawarij who fought Ali radhiya Allahu `anh. They make it obligatory on the woian to make up her prayers if she menstruates. `Aisha feared that Mu`aathah was among them.

-Poor Intentions

-Poor Intentions

Failing to intend (i.e. with the heart) to fast from before the dawn of the day of fast. (Note: voluntary or nafl fasting is excepted from this requirement)

Intending to stop fasting at any moment during the day of fast. These last two actions are actions of the heart and are related to the intention which has been shown as being an essential element [or pillar] of fasting. These actions void the fast even if the person does not actually eat anything. This is because the intention is one of the pillars of the fast and, if one changes his/her intention, he/she has nullified his/her fast.

Except intercourse, a day invalidated by such an action cannot be atoned by even fasting the whole life. Thus, in addition to the qadha' [making up the day], the only way to atone such an act is by true and sincere repentance and strong determination never to do it.

The only action, according to most scholars, which requires that both the day be made up and the act of expiation be performed is having sexual intercourse during a day of Ramadan.

Abu Hurairah reported that a man came to the Messenger of Allah and said: "I am destroyed, 0 Messenger of Allah!" The Prophet asked: "What has destroyed you?" He said, "I had intercourse with my wife during a day of Ramadan." The Prophet asked: "Are you able to free a slave?" He said, "No". The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to fast for two consecutive months?" He said, "No." The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to feed sixty poor people?" He said, "No." The Prophet said: "Then sit." A basket of dates was brought to the Prophet and he said to the man: Give this in charity. The man said: "To someone poorer than us? There is no one in this city who is poorer than us!" The Prophet laughed until his molar teeth could be seen and said: "Go and feed your family with it." [Bukhari, Muslim and others]

Most scholars say that both men and women have to perform the acts of expiation (Kaffarah) if they intentionally have intercourse during a day of Ramadan on which they had intended to fast.

5-Injections containing nourishment

Though this type of action is committed intentionally and thus falls under intentional eating and drinking, it is not considered as a sin if given to a sick person in need of it. All what is needed is to make up the day later. These injections are meant to give nourishment intravenously so that it reaches the intestines, with the intention of nourishing the sick person. Also if the injection reaches the blood-stream then it likewise breaks the fast since it is being used in place of food and drink. Similar is the use of drips containing glucose and saline solutions, and inhalers used by people sick of asthma. May Allah relieve all sick believers.


Involuntarily events that break the fast

The fast is disrupted (and there is no point or reward then in continuing to fast) when a woman sees the blood caused by either of:

1-Menstruation
2-post-childbirth bleeding

Even if such bleeding begins just before the sunset, the fast of that day is rendered invalid. A woman in this case will have to fast a day later (qadha') for every day (or part of day) that she missed.

If a menstruating woman becomes Tahira (ceases bleeding) before dawn, then she takes her Ghusl (purifying shower) and intends to fast the next day. However, if she becomes Tahira after fajr then she takes her ghusl, and starts praying as usual and the day has to made up after Ramadan. She may eat and drink during that day as it is an invalid day as Shaikh Ibn Otheimin observed.

The Prophet (S) said: "Is it not that when she [the woman] menstruates, she does not pray nor fast?" We said : Yes indeed. He said: "That is the deficiency in her Deen [religion]. In another narration: "She remains not praying at night and refraining from fasting in Ramadan, that is the deficiency in her Deen".[Muslim]

The order to make up for the days of menstruation is reported in the lesson `Aishah gave to Mu`aathah who came and asked her "Why is it that the menstruating woman has to make up her fasts but not the prayers?" `Aisha said: "Are you a Harooree(*) woman?" I (Mu`aathah) said: "I am not a Harooree woman, but I wish to ask". `Aisha said: "That used to come upon us and so we were ordered to make up the fasts and were never ordered to make up the prayers" [Bukhari and Muslim]

(*)Haroorees are the people of Haroora near Koofa [Iraq]. They had the belief of Khawarij who fought Ali radhiya Allahu `anh. They make it obligatory on the woian to make up her prayers if she menstruates. `Aisha feared that Mu`aathah was among them.

Intentional vomiting

Intentional vomiting

Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (S) said :"Whoever is overcome and vomits is not to make up the day. Whoever vomits intentionally must make up the day." [Ahmad, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmithi and Ibn Majah; Sahih]

4-Poor Intentions

Failing to intend (i.e. with the heart) to fast from before the dawn of the day of fast. (Note: voluntary or nafl fasting is excepted from this requirement)

Intending to stop fasting at any moment during the day of fast. These last two actions are actions of the heart and are related to the intention which has been shown as being an essential element [or pillar] of fasting. These actions void the fast even if the person does not actually eat anything. This is because the intention is one of the pillars of the fast and, if one changes his/her intention, he/she has nullified his/her fast.

Except intercourse, a day invalidated by such an action cannot be atoned by even fasting the whole life. Thus, in addition to the qadha' [making up the day], the only way to atone such an act is by true and sincere repentance and strong determination never to do it.

The only action, according to most scholars, which requires that both the day be made up and the act of expiation be performed is having sexual intercourse during a day of Ramadan.

Abu Hurairah reported that a man came to the Messenger of Allah and said: "I am destroyed, 0 Messenger of Allah!" The Prophet asked: "What has destroyed you?" He said, "I had intercourse with my wife during a day of Ramadan." The Prophet asked: "Are you able to free a slave?" He said, "No". The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to fast for two consecutive months?" He said, "No." The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to feed sixty poor people?" He said, "No." The Prophet said: "Then sit." A basket of dates was brought to the Prophet and he said to the man: Give this in charity. The man said: "To someone poorer than us? There is no one in this city who is poorer than us!" The Prophet laughed until his molar teeth could be seen and said: "Go and feed your family with it." [Bukhari, Muslim and others]

Most scholars say that both men and women have to perform the acts of expiation (Kaffarah) if they intentionally have intercourse during a day of Ramadan on which they had intended to fast.

5-Injections containing nourishment

Though this type of action is committed intentionally and thus falls under intentional eating and drinking, it is not considered as a sin if given to a sick person in need of it. All what is needed is to make up the day later. These injections are meant to give nourishment intravenously so that it reaches the intestines, with the intention of nourishing the sick person. Also if the injection reaches the blood-stream then it likewise breaks the fast since it is being used in place of food and drink. Similar is the use of drips containing glucose and saline solutions, and inhalers used by people sick of asthma. May Allah relieve all sick believers.


Involuntarily events that break the fast

The fast is disrupted (and there is no point or reward then in continuing to fast) when a woman sees the blood caused by either of:

1-Menstruation
2-post-childbirth bleeding

Even if such bleeding begins just before the sunset, the fast of that day is rendered invalid. A woman in this case will have to fast a day later (qadha') for every day (or part of day) that she missed.

If a menstruating woman becomes Tahira (ceases bleeding) before dawn, then she takes her Ghusl (purifying shower) and intends to fast the next day. However, if she becomes Tahira after fajr then she takes her ghusl, and starts praying as usual and the day has to made up after Ramadan. She may eat and drink during that day as it is an invalid day as Shaikh Ibn Otheimin observed.

The Prophet (S) said: "Is it not that when she [the woman] menstruates, she does not pray nor fast?" We said : Yes indeed. He said: "That is the deficiency in her Deen [religion]. In another narration: "She remains not praying at night and refraining from fasting in Ramadan, that is the deficiency in her Deen".[Muslim]

The order to make up for the days of menstruation is reported in the lesson `Aishah gave to Mu`aathah who came and asked her "Why is it that the menstruating woman has to make up her fasts but not the prayers?" `Aisha said: "Are you a Harooree(*) woman?" I (Mu`aathah) said: "I am not a Harooree woman, but I wish to ask". `Aisha said: "That used to come upon us and so we were ordered to make up the fasts and were never ordered to make up the prayers" [Bukhari and Muslim]

(*)Haroorees are the people of Haroora near Koofa [Iraq]. They had the belief of Khawarij who fought Ali radhiya Allahu `anh. They make it obligatory on the woian to make up her prayers if she menstruates. `Aisha feared that Mu`aathah was among them.

Sexual intercourse

Sexual intercourse

Just like eating and drinking Allah has forbidden sexual intercourse during the days of Ramadan;

"Permitted to you, on the night of the fasts, is the approach to your wives. They are your garments and ye are their garments. Allah knows what you used to do secretly among yourselves; but He turned to you and forgave you; so now associate (i.e. have sexual intercourse) with them, and seek what Allah Hath ordained for you (i.e. offspring), and eat and drink, until the white thread of dawn appear to you distinct from its black thread; then complete your fast till the night appears; but do not associate with your wives while you are in seclusion (I`tikaf) in the mosques. Those are Limits (set by) Allah. Approach not nigh thereto. Thus does Allah make clear His Signs to men: that they may learn self-restraint. [al-Baqara; 2:187]

The `ulama' [Scholars] differ about stimulating oneself [whether alone or with his wife or vise versa], without intercourse, to the point of ejaculation. Some of them treat it as complete intercourse, while others say that it does not invalidate the fast even though it causes a loss of its rewards.

3-Intentional vomiting

Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (S) said :"Whoever is overcome and vomits is not to make up the day. Whoever vomits intentionally must make up the day." [Ahmad, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmithi and Ibn Majah; Sahih]

4-Poor Intentions

Failing to intend (i.e. with the heart) to fast from before the dawn of the day of fast. (Note: voluntary or nafl fasting is excepted from this requirement)

Intending to stop fasting at any moment during the day of fast. These last two actions are actions of the heart and are related to the intention which has been shown as being an essential element [or pillar] of fasting. These actions void the fast even if the person does not actually eat anything. This is because the intention is one of the pillars of the fast and, if one changes his/her intention, he/she has nullified his/her fast.

Except intercourse, a day invalidated by such an action cannot be atoned by even fasting the whole life. Thus, in addition to the qadha' [making up the day], the only way to atone such an act is by true and sincere repentance and strong determination never to do it.

The only action, according to most scholars, which requires that both the day be made up and the act of expiation be performed is having sexual intercourse during a day of Ramadan.

Abu Hurairah reported that a man came to the Messenger of Allah and said: "I am destroyed, 0 Messenger of Allah!" The Prophet asked: "What has destroyed you?" He said, "I had intercourse with my wife during a day of Ramadan." The Prophet asked: "Are you able to free a slave?" He said, "No". The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to fast for two consecutive months?" He said, "No." The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to feed sixty poor people?" He said, "No." The Prophet said: "Then sit." A basket of dates was brought to the Prophet and he said to the man: Give this in charity. The man said: "To someone poorer than us? There is no one in this city who is poorer than us!" The Prophet laughed until his molar teeth could be seen and said: "Go and feed your family with it." [Bukhari, Muslim and others]

Most scholars say that both men and women have to perform the acts of expiation (Kaffarah) if they intentionally have intercourse during a day of Ramadan on which they had intended to fast.

5-Injections containing nourishment

Though this type of action is committed intentionally and thus falls under intentional eating and drinking, it is not considered as a sin if given to a sick person in need of it. All what is needed is to make up the day later. These injections are meant to give nourishment intravenously so that it reaches the intestines, with the intention of nourishing the sick person. Also if the injection reaches the blood-stream then it likewise breaks the fast since it is being used in place of food and drink. Similar is the use of drips containing glucose and saline solutions, and inhalers used by people sick of asthma. May Allah relieve all sick believers.


Involuntarily events that break the fast

The fast is disrupted (and there is no point or reward then in continuing to fast) when a woman sees the blood caused by either of:

1-Menstruation
2-post-childbirth bleeding

Even if such bleeding begins just before the sunset, the fast of that day is rendered invalid. A woman in this case will have to fast a day later (qadha') for every day (or part of day) that she missed.

If a menstruating woman becomes Tahira (ceases bleeding) before dawn, then she takes her Ghusl (purifying shower) and intends to fast the next day. However, if she becomes Tahira after fajr then she takes her ghusl, and starts praying as usual and the day has to made up after Ramadan. She may eat and drink during that day as it is an invalid day as Shaikh Ibn Otheimin observed.

The Prophet (S) said: "Is it not that when she [the woman] menstruates, she does not pray nor fast?" We said : Yes indeed. He said: "That is the deficiency in her Deen [religion]. In another narration: "She remains not praying at night and refraining from fasting in Ramadan, that is the deficiency in her Deen".[Muslim]

The order to make up for the days of menstruation is reported in the lesson `Aishah gave to Mu`aathah who came and asked her "Why is it that the menstruating woman has to make up her fasts but not the prayers?" `Aisha said: "Are you a Harooree(*) woman?" I (Mu`aathah) said: "I am not a Harooree woman, but I wish to ask". `Aisha said: "That used to come upon us and so we were ordered to make up the fasts and were never ordered to make up the prayers" [Bukhari and Muslim]

(*)Haroorees are the people of Haroora near Koofa [Iraq]. They had the belief of Khawarij who fought Ali radhiya Allahu `anh. They make it obligatory on the woian to make up her prayers if she menstruates. `Aisha feared that Mu`aathah was among them.

Intentional eating, drinking

Actions Which Nullify the Fast

The following acts, when done knowingly and deliberately in the days of Ramadhan, will invalidate the fast. In addition to being considered great sins, a person committing one of these acts will have to continue fasting the rest of the day that he/she committed it, and he/she is also required to take certain measures of reconciliation as indicated below.

1-Intentional eating, drinking

Allah says [in the meaning of]: "Eat and drink until the white thread becomes distinct to you from the black thread of the dawn. Then strictly observe the fast until nightfall." [al-Baqara, 2:187].

This applies to the one who does so consciously. However, if a person eats or drinks forgetfully or accidently or is forced to do it, the fasting is intact, the day is not to be made up and the person should continue fasting.

Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (S) said:"Whoever forgets he is fasting, and eats or drinks is to complete his fast, as it is Allah who fed him and gave him something to drink." [Bukhari, Muslim and others]

Ibn Abbas reported that the Prophet (S) said:" Allah has excused for my Ummah mistakes, forgetfulness and what they are forced to do". [Tahawee, al-Hakim and Daraqutni; Sahih].

Similar to eating and drinking is smoking [besides being prohibited in itself] and letting any substance into the stomach.

However, if a person eats or drink out of forgetfulness, then he/she should continue fasting and the day fasted is valid and counted and does not need to make up the day. This is based on the hadith of Abu Huraira in Sahih al-Bukhari: The Prophet said, "If somebody eats or drinks forgetfully then he should complete his fast, for what he has eaten or drunk, has been given to him by Allah.".

Similarly if a person breaks the fast before the actual maghrib (sunset) or after fajr because of a mistake in time recognition, he is not to make up the day.

2-Sexual intercourse

Just like eating and drinking Allah has forbidden sexual intercourse during the days of Ramadan;

"Permitted to you, on the night of the fasts, is the approach to your wives. They are your garments and ye are their garments. Allah knows what you used to do secretly among yourselves; but He turned to you and forgave you; so now associate (i.e. have sexual intercourse) with them, and seek what Allah Hath ordained for you (i.e. offspring), and eat and drink, until the white thread of dawn appear to you distinct from its black thread; then complete your fast till the night appears; but do not associate with your wives while you are in seclusion (I`tikaf) in the mosques. Those are Limits (set by) Allah. Approach not nigh thereto. Thus does Allah make clear His Signs to men: that they may learn self-restraint. [al-Baqara; 2:187]

The `ulama' [Scholars] differ about stimulating oneself [whether alone or with his wife or vise versa], without intercourse, to the point of ejaculation. Some of them treat it as complete intercourse, while others say that it does not invalidate the fast even though it causes a loss of its rewards.

3-Intentional vomiting

Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (S) said :"Whoever is overcome and vomits is not to make up the day. Whoever vomits intentionally must make up the day." [Ahmad, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmithi and Ibn Majah; Sahih]

4-Poor Intentions

Failing to intend (i.e. with the heart) to fast from before the dawn of the day of fast. (Note: voluntary or nafl fasting is excepted from this requirement)

Intending to stop fasting at any moment during the day of fast. These last two actions are actions of the heart and are related to the intention which has been shown as being an essential element [or pillar] of fasting. These actions void the fast even if the person does not actually eat anything. This is because the intention is one of the pillars of the fast and, if one changes his/her intention, he/she has nullified his/her fast.

Except intercourse, a day invalidated by such an action cannot be atoned by even fasting the whole life. Thus, in addition to the qadha' [making up the day], the only way to atone such an act is by true and sincere repentance and strong determination never to do it.

The only action, according to most scholars, which requires that both the day be made up and the act of expiation be performed is having sexual intercourse during a day of Ramadan.

Abu Hurairah reported that a man came to the Messenger of Allah and said: "I am destroyed, 0 Messenger of Allah!" The Prophet asked: "What has destroyed you?" He said, "I had intercourse with my wife during a day of Ramadan." The Prophet asked: "Are you able to free a slave?" He said, "No". The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to fast for two consecutive months?" He said, "No." The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to feed sixty poor people?" He said, "No." The Prophet said: "Then sit." A basket of dates was brought to the Prophet and he said to the man: Give this in charity. The man said: "To someone poorer than us? There is no one in this city who is poorer than us!" The Prophet laughed until his molar teeth could be seen and said: "Go and feed your family with it." [Bukhari, Muslim and others]

Most scholars say that both men and women have to perform the acts of expiation (Kaffarah) if they intentionally have intercourse during a day of Ramadan on which they had intended to fast.

5-Injections containing nourishment

Though this type of action is committed intentionally and thus falls under intentional eating and drinking, it is not considered as a sin if given to a sick person in need of it. All what is needed is to make up the day later. These injections are meant to give nourishment intravenously so that it reaches the intestines, with the intention of nourishing the sick person. Also if the injection reaches the blood-stream then it likewise breaks the fast since it is being used in place of food and drink. Similar is the use of drips containing glucose and saline solutions, and inhalers used by people sick of asthma. May Allah relieve all sick believers.


Involuntarily events that break the fast

The fast is disrupted (and there is no point or reward then in continuing to fast) when a woman sees the blood caused by either of:

1-Menstruation
2-post-childbirth bleeding

Even if such bleeding begins just before the sunset, the fast of that day is rendered invalid. A woman in this case will have to fast a day later (qadha') for every day (or part of day) that she missed.

If a menstruating woman becomes Tahira (ceases bleeding) before dawn, then she takes her Ghusl (purifying shower) and intends to fast the next day. However, if she becomes Tahira after fajr then she takes her ghusl, and starts praying as usual and the day has to made up after Ramadan. She may eat and drink during that day as it is an invalid day as Shaikh Ibn Otheimin observed.

The Prophet (S) said: "Is it not that when she [the woman] menstruates, she does not pray nor fast?" We said : Yes indeed. He said: "That is the deficiency in her Deen [religion]. In another narration: "She remains not praying at night and refraining from fasting in Ramadan, that is the deficiency in her Deen".[Muslim]

The order to make up for the days of menstruation is reported in the lesson `Aishah gave to Mu`aathah who came and asked her "Why is it that the menstruating woman has to make up her fasts but not the prayers?" `Aisha said: "Are you a Harooree(*) woman?" I (Mu`aathah) said: "I am not a Harooree woman, but I wish to ask". `Aisha said: "That used to come upon us and so we were ordered to make up the fasts and were never ordered to make up the prayers" [Bukhari and Muslim]

(*)Haroorees are the people of Haroora near Koofa [Iraq]. They had the belief of Khawarij who fought Ali radhiya Allahu `anh. They make it obligatory on the woian to make up her prayers if she menstruates. `Aisha feared that Mu`aathah was among them.

Actions Which Nullify the Fast

Actions Which Nullify the Fast

The following acts, when done knowingly and deliberately in the days of Ramadhan, will invalidate the fast. In addition to being considered great sins, a person committing one of these acts will have to continue fasting the rest of the day that he/she committed it, and he/she is also required to take certain measures of reconciliation as indicated below.

1-Intentional eating, drinking

Allah says [in the meaning of]: "Eat and drink until the white thread becomes distinct to you from the black thread of the dawn. Then strictly observe the fast until nightfall." [al-Baqara, 2:187].

This applies to the one who does so consciously. However, if a person eats or drinks forgetfully or accidently or is forced to do it, the fasting is intact, the day is not to be made up and the person should continue fasting.

Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (S) said:"Whoever forgets he is fasting, and eats or drinks is to complete his fast, as it is Allah who fed him and gave him something to drink." [Bukhari, Muslim and others]

Ibn Abbas reported that the Prophet (S) said:" Allah has excused for my Ummah mistakes, forgetfulness and what they are forced to do". [Tahawee, al-Hakim and Daraqutni; Sahih].

Similar to eating and drinking is smoking [besides being prohibited in itself] and letting any substance into the stomach.

However, if a person eats or drink out of forgetfulness, then he/she should continue fasting and the day fasted is valid and counted and does not need to make up the day. This is based on the hadith of Abu Huraira in Sahih al-Bukhari: The Prophet said, "If somebody eats or drinks forgetfully then he should complete his fast, for what he has eaten or drunk, has been given to him by Allah.".

Similarly if a person breaks the fast before the actual maghrib (sunset) or after fajr because of a mistake in time recognition, he is not to make up the day.

2-Sexual intercourse

Just like eating and drinking Allah has forbidden sexual intercourse during the days of Ramadan;

"Permitted to you, on the night of the fasts, is the approach to your wives. They are your garments and ye are their garments. Allah knows what you used to do secretly among yourselves; but He turned to you and forgave you; so now associate (i.e. have sexual intercourse) with them, and seek what Allah Hath ordained for you (i.e. offspring), and eat and drink, until the white thread of dawn appear to you distinct from its black thread; then complete your fast till the night appears; but do not associate with your wives while you are in seclusion (I`tikaf) in the mosques. Those are Limits (set by) Allah. Approach not nigh thereto. Thus does Allah make clear His Signs to men: that they may learn self-restraint. [al-Baqara; 2:187]

The `ulama' [Scholars] differ about stimulating oneself [whether alone or with his wife or vise versa], without intercourse, to the point of ejaculation. Some of them treat it as complete intercourse, while others say that it does not invalidate the fast even though it causes a loss of its rewards.

3-Intentional vomiting

Abu Hurairah reported that the Prophet (S) said :"Whoever is overcome and vomits is not to make up the day. Whoever vomits intentionally must make up the day." [Ahmad, Abu Dawud, at-Tirmithi and Ibn Majah; Sahih]

4-Poor Intentions

Failing to intend (i.e. with the heart) to fast from before the dawn of the day of fast. (Note: voluntary or nafl fasting is excepted from this requirement)

Intending to stop fasting at any moment during the day of fast. These last two actions are actions of the heart and are related to the intention which has been shown as being an essential element [or pillar] of fasting. These actions void the fast even if the person does not actually eat anything. This is because the intention is one of the pillars of the fast and, if one changes his/her intention, he/she has nullified his/her fast.

Except intercourse, a day invalidated by such an action cannot be atoned by even fasting the whole life. Thus, in addition to the qadha' [making up the day], the only way to atone such an act is by true and sincere repentance and strong determination never to do it.

The only action, according to most scholars, which requires that both the day be made up and the act of expiation be performed is having sexual intercourse during a day of Ramadan.

Abu Hurairah reported that a man came to the Messenger of Allah and said: "I am destroyed, 0 Messenger of Allah!" The Prophet asked: "What has destroyed you?" He said, "I had intercourse with my wife during a day of Ramadan." The Prophet asked: "Are you able to free a slave?" He said, "No". The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to fast for two consecutive months?" He said, "No." The Prophet asked: "Is it possible for you to feed sixty poor people?" He said, "No." The Prophet said: "Then sit." A basket of dates was brought to the Prophet and he said to the man: Give this in charity. The man said: "To someone poorer than us? There is no one in this city who is poorer than us!" The Prophet laughed until his molar teeth could be seen and said: "Go and feed your family with it." [Bukhari, Muslim and others]

Most scholars say that both men and women have to perform the acts of expiation (Kaffarah) if they intentionally have intercourse during a day of Ramadan on which they had intended to fast.

5-Injections containing nourishment

Though this type of action is committed intentionally and thus falls under intentional eating and drinking, it is not considered as a sin if given to a sick person in need of it. All what is needed is to make up the day later. These injections are meant to give nourishment intravenously so that it reaches the intestines, with the intention of nourishing the sick person. Also if the injection reaches the blood-stream then it likewise breaks the fast since it is being used in place of food and drink. Similar is the use of drips containing glucose and saline solutions, and inhalers used by people sick of asthma. May Allah relieve all sick believers.


Involuntarily events that break the fast

The fast is disrupted (and there is no point or reward then in continuing to fast) when a woman sees the blood caused by either of:

1-Menstruation
2-post-childbirth bleeding

Even if such bleeding begins just before the sunset, the fast of that day is rendered invalid. A woman in this case will have to fast a day later (qadha') for every day (or part of day) that she missed.

If a menstruating woman becomes Tahira (ceases bleeding) before dawn, then she takes her Ghusl (purifying shower) and intends to fast the next day. However, if she becomes Tahira after fajr then she takes her ghusl, and starts praying as usual and the day has to made up after Ramadan. She may eat and drink during that day as it is an invalid day as Shaikh Ibn Otheimin observed.

The Prophet (S) said: "Is it not that when she [the woman] menstruates, she does not pray nor fast?" We said : Yes indeed. He said: "That is the deficiency in her Deen [religion]. In another narration: "She remains not praying at night and refraining from fasting in Ramadan, that is the deficiency in her Deen".[Muslim]

The order to make up for the days of menstruation is reported in the lesson `Aishah gave to Mu`aathah who came and asked her "Why is it that the menstruating woman has to make up her fasts but not the prayers?" `Aisha said: "Are you a Harooree(*) woman?" I (Mu`aathah) said: "I am not a Harooree woman, but I wish to ask". `Aisha said: "That used to come upon us and so we were ordered to make up the fasts and were never ordered to make up the prayers" [Bukhari and Muslim]

(*)Haroorees are the people of Haroora near Koofa [Iraq]. They had the belief of Khawarij who fought Ali radhiya Allahu `anh. They make it obligatory on the woian to make up her prayers if she menstruates. `Aisha feared that Mu`aathah was among them

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Why Two Women Witnesses?

Why Two Women Witnesses?
Adapted from the book by Shamshad.M.Khan with modifications and additions by Abu 'Iyaad

(Zawaj.com Editor's note: What the author presents here is one possible explanation of an Islamic legal principle. Her explanation may or may not be correct. As always, we human beings can often see the logic and the benefit of Divine injunctions, but ultimately the full truth is known only to Allah.)


A question that repeatedly arises is that concerning the 'position of women in Islaam'. Muslim scholars have been able with great success - despite the onslaught of distortion and mis-representation - to demonstrate the true position of Muslim women; especially of women's liberation in the advent of Islaam. The Islaamic ruling on issues such as inheritance, the right to earn, the right to own property etc. have reinforced this position and have been prescribed by Allaah - the One True God - long before western nations even thought of such concepts!

The issue of two women witnesses in place of one man is the concern of the present treatise. As will become clear to the sincere and objective reader, the intellectual status of a Muslim woman is neither marred nor degraded by the commandment that if two Muslim male witnesses are not available then one Muslim male and two Muslim females should be invited to witness. Rather, this injunction is in perfect harmony with the nature and psychology of the woman as will become evident through quotations from psychologists, psychiatrists and medical research.

The passage of the Qur'aan (Baqarah 2:282) in which the above-mentioned requirement is made has usury, capital and debtor difficulties as its theme. Allaah grants guidelines in matters relating to monetary obligations. Then business transactions are dealt with. In this section, the requirement to commit all transactions into writing is stated most emphatically (Reduce them to writing...). The section after this describes the responsibility of the scribe, or in modern parlance, the person responsible for drawing up the agreement. The following section describes the responsibility and the obligation of the person incurring the liability. The section after this explains how if the party that is liable cannot effectively draw up the contract - out of being deficient or weak mentally, or being unable to dictate - then his or her guardian should help draw out the contract and choose two suitable witnesses to observe. It must be understood that this situation arises if it is not possible for the liable party to draw out the contract by him/herself. The condition to put things into writing is still supreme.

The next section then explains that two men should be called to witness and if two men are not available (And if there are not two men...) then a man and two women. The legislation then continues and reminds most emphatically that one should not be complacent about putting ALL agreements into writing - no matter whether these agreements are major or minor as this is more JUST in the sight of Allaah and more reliable as evidence. The passage of the Qur'aan further explains that for practical reasons it may not always be possible to commit on-the-spot agreements into writing. In this case, it is also recommended that it be witnessed. The section which follows then lays down the guidelines which should be followed in the event that no witnesses are present.

The purpose in giving the above outline is to draw attention to the fact the question of women witnesses relates, in this instance, to commercial agreements and is not a STATEMENT ON THEIR STATUS.

Let's look at the section under investigation in more detail. Allaah said:

And get two witnesses of your own men, and if there are not two men then a man and two women such as you choose for witnesses - so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her... [Baqarah 2:182]

A number of questions (as well as eyebrows!) are raised when this section of the passage is read. The questions often posed include:

* Do women have weaker memories than men?
* Why should two women be needed in the place of one man?
* Are women inferior to men?

One must remember that Prophet Muhammad (sas) was neither a physiologist, a psychiatrist and nor a surgeon. He was an illiterate and could neither read nor write. He passed on the revelation exactly as he received it. Allaah, the Creator, with His infinite wisdom gave the directives best suited to humankind. He is the Creator, therefore, He knows man better than a man himself.

In this scientific age we can explore the significance of this legislation. A great deal has been discovered since the early days of Islaam. And each day of advancement brings about a better understanding of the the last and final revelation from the Creator, Allaah to the creation, humankind.

As women, we are aware of the cyclical psychological strains that a woman has to encounter every month. The symptoms during early pregnancy, ante-natal and post-natal depressions, the phenomenon of menopause, the physiological and psychological problems due to infertility and last but not least the psychological problems faced after miscarriage.

It is under these situations that women can experience extraordinary psychological strains giving rise to depression, lack of concentration, slow-mindedness and SHORT TERM MEMORY LOSS. Let us examine these episodes in a bit more detail and with medical references from the scientific world. PMT is an umbrella term for more than 140 different symptoms and there is a lot of evidence that it causes a lot of unhappiness in many women, and consequently, to their families.

Psychiatry in Practice, April 1983 issue states: "Forty percent of women suffer from pre-menstrual syndrome in some form and some have their lives severely disrupted by it. Dr Jill Williams, general practitioner from Bury, gives guidelines on how to recognise patients at risk and suggests a suitable treatment."1

In the same issue, George Beaumont reporting on the workshop held at the Royal College of Obstreticians and Gynaecologists in London on pre-menstrual syndrome, says: "Some authorities would argue that eighty percent of women have some degree of breast and abdominal discomfort which is pre-menstrual but that only about 10 percent complain to their doctors - and then only because of severe tenderness of the breasts and mental depression... Other authorities have suggested that pre-menstrual syndrome is a new problem, regular ovulation for twenty years or more being a phenomenon caused by 'civilisation', 'medical progress', and an altered concept of the role of women."2

In its examination of the occurrence of physical and psychological change during the period just prior to the onset of menstruation we read in Psychological Medicine: "Many studies have reported an increased likelihood of various negative affects during the pre-menstrual period. In this affective category are many emotional designations including irritability, depression, tension, anxiety, sadness, insecurity, lethargy, loneliness, tearfulness, fatigue, restlessness and changes of mood. In the majority of studies, investigators have found it difficult to distinguish between various negative affects, and only a few have allowed themselves to be excessively concerned with the differences which might or might not exist between affective symptoms."3

In the same article dealing with Pre-menstrual Behavioural Changes we read: "A significant relationship between the pre-menstrual phase of the cycle and a variety of specific and defined forms of behaviour has been reported in a number of studies. For the purpose of their review, these forms of behaviour have been grouped under the headings of aggressive behaviour, illness behaviour and accidents, performance on examination and other tests and sporting performance."4 The lengthy review portrays how female behaviour is affected in these situations.

In 'The Pre-menstrual Syndrome', C. Shreeves writes: "Reduced powers of concentration and memory are familiar aspects of the pre-menstrual syndrome and can only be remedied by treating the underlying complaint." This does not mean, of course, that women are mentally deficient absolutely. It just means that their mental faculties can become affected at certain times in the biological cycle. Shreeves also writes: "As many as 80 percent of women are aware of some degree of pre-menstrual changes, 40 percent are substantially disturbed by them, and between 10 and 20 percent are seriously disabled as a result of the syndrome."

Furthermore, women face the problem of ante-natal and post-natal depression, both of which cause extreme cycles of depression in some cases. Again, these recurring symptoms naturally affect the mind, giving rise to drowsiness and dopey memory.

On the subject of pregnancy in Psychiatry in Practice, October-November 1986, we learn that: "In an experiment 'Cox' found that 16 percent of a sample of 263 pregnant women were suffering from clinically significant psychiatric problems. Eight percent had a depressive neurosis and 1.9 percent had phobic neurosis. This study showed that the proportion of pregnant women with psychiatric problems was greater than that found in the control group but the difference only tended towards significance."5

Regarding the symptoms during the post-natal cycle Dr. Ruth Sagovsky writes: "The third category of puerperal psychiatric problems is post-natal depression. It is generally agreed that between10 to 15 percent of women become clinically depressed after childbirth. These mothers experience a variety of symptoms but anxiety, especially over the baby, irritability, and excessive fatigue are common. Appetite is usually decreased and often there are considerable sleep difficulties. The mothers lose interest in the things they enjoyed prior to the baby's birth, and find that their concentration is impaired. They often feel irrational guilt, and blame themselves for being 'bad' wives and mothers. Fifty percent of these women are not identified as having a depressive illness. Unfortunately, many of them do not understand what ails them and blame their husbands, their babies or themselves until the relationships are strained to an alarming degree."6

"... Making the diagnosis of post-natal depression is not always easy. Quite often the depression is beginning to become a serious problem around three months postpartum when frequent contact with the health visitor is diminishing. The mother may not present with depressed mood. If she comes to the health centre presenting the baby as the patient, the true nature of the problem can be missed. When the mother is continually anxious about the baby in spite of reassurance, then the primary health care worker needs to be aware of the possibility of depression. Sometimes these mothers present with marital difficulties, and it is easy to muddle cause and effect, viewing the accompanying low mood as part of the marital problem. Sometimes, only when the husband is seen as well does it become obvious that it is a post-natal depressive illness which has led to the deterioration in the marriage."7

Again there is a need to study the effects of the menopause about which very little is known even to this day. This phase in a woman's life can start at any time from the mid-thirties to the mid-fifties and can last for as long as fifteen years.

Writing about the pre-menopausal years, C.B. Ballinger states: "Several of the community surveys indicate a small but significant increase in psychiatric symptoms in women during the five years prior to the cessation of menstrual periods... The most obvious clinical feature of this transitional phase of menstrual function is the alteration in menstrual pattern, the menstrual cycle becoming shorter with age, and variability in cycle length become very prominent just prior to the cessation of menstruation. Menorrhagia is a common complaint at this time, and is associated with higher than normal levels of psychiatric disturbance."8

On the phenomenon of menopause in an article in Newsweek International, May 25th 1992, Dr. Jennifer al-Knopf, Director of the Sex and Marital Therapy Programme of Northwestern University writes: "...Women never know what their body is doing to them... some reporting debilitating symptoms from hot flashes to night sweat, sleeplessness, irritability, mood swings, short term memory loss, migraine, headaches, urinary inconsistence and weight gain. Most such problems can be traced to the drop-off in the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone, both of which govern the ovarian cycle. But every woman starts with a different level of hormones and loses them at different rates. The unpredictability is one of the most upsetting aspects. Women never know what their body is going to do to them..."

Then there are the psychiatric aspects of infertility and miscarriage. On the subject of infertility, Dr. Ruth Sagovsky writes: "Depression, anger and guilt are common reactions to bereavement. In infertility there is the added pain of there being nobody to grieve for. Families and friends may contribute to the feeling of isolation by passing insensitive comments. The gynaecologist and GPs have to try to help these couples against a backdrop of considerable distress."9

On the subject of miscarriage the above article continues: "Miscarriage is rarely mentioned when considering abortion. However, miscarriage can at times have profound psychological sequelae and it is important that those women affected receive the support they need. Approximately one-fifth of all pregnancies end in spontaneous abortion and the effects are poorly recognised. If however, the miscarriage occurs in the context of infertility, the emotional reaction may be severe. The level of grief will depend on the meaning of pregnancy to the couple."10

Also, the fact that women are known to be more sensitive and emotional than men must not be overlooked. It is well known, for example, that under identical circumstances women suffer much greater anxiety than men. Numerous medical references on this aspect of female behaviour can be given but to quote as a specimen, we read in 'Sex Differences in Mental Health' that: "Surveys have found different correlates of anxiety and neuroticism in the two sexes. Women and men do not become equally upset by the same things, and being upset does not have the same effect in men as in women. Ekehammer (1974; Ekehammer, Magnusson and Ricklander, 1974) using data from 116 sixteen-year-olds, did a factor analysis on self-reported anxiety. Of the eighteen different responses indicating anxiety (sweating palms, faster heart rate, and so on) females reported experiencing twelve of them significantly more often than males. Of the anxiety-producing situations studied, females reported experiencing significantly more anxiety than males reported in fourteen of them."11

It is in light of the above findings of psychologist, psychiatrists and researchers that the saying of Allaah, the Exalted:

And get two witnesses of your own men, and if there are not two men then a man and two women such as you choose for witnesses - SO THAT IF ONE OF THEM ERRS, THE OTHER CAN REMIND HER... [Baqarah 2:182]

can be understood. One must also bear in mind that forgetfulness can be an asset. A woman has to be put up with children presenting all kinds of emotional problems and a woman is certainly known to be more resilient than man. The aim of presenting these research findings on a number of aspects related with the theme is to indicate that a woman by her biological constitution faces such problems. It does not however make her inferior to man but it does illustrate that she is different. Viewed in this way, it can only lead one to the conclusion that Allaah knows His creation the best and has prescribed precise laws in keeping with the nature of humankind.

Allaah, the Creator is - as always - All-Knowing, and man (or the disbeliever in Allaah and the final, perfected, revealed way of life, Islaam) is - as usual - ignorant.


Footnotes

1 Psychiatry in Practice, April 1993, p.14.

2 Psychiatry in Practice, April 1993, p.18.

3 Psychological Medicine, Monograph Supplement 4, 1983, Cambridge University Press, p.6.

4 Psychological Medicine, Monograph Supplement 4, 1983, Cambridge University Press, p.7.

5 Psychiatry in Practice, October-November, 1986, p.6.

6 Psychiatry in Practice, May, 1987, p.18.

7 Psychiatry in Practice, May, 1987, p.18. As has been mentioned above the Prophet Muhammad (sas) was neither a psychologist nor a psychiatrist. Rather, he merely conveyed the truth that was revealed to him. It is in the context of this quotation and the one before it that the following saying of the Prophet Muhammad (sas) can be understood: "Treat your women kindly. The woman has been created from a rib, and the most curved part of a rib is its upper region. If you try to straighten it you will break it, and if you leave it as it is, it will remain curved. So treat women kindly." And in another narration: "If you try to straighten her you will break her and breaking her means divorce." [Reported by Bukhari and Muslim]. This is very important advice for the man - for him to have patience and not to try to 'reform' the behavioural pattern of the woman during these times i.e. 'to straighten her'. He will not be able to do that, as it is biological in origin. Instead, he should maintain and protect his relationship with her by showing kindness.

8 Psychiatry in Practice, November, 1987, p.26.

9 Psychiatry in Practice, Winter, 1989, p.16.

10 Psychiatry in Practice, Winter, 1989, p.17.

11 Katherine Blick Hoyenga and Kermit T. Hoyenga in 'Sex Differences in Mental Health'

ISLAMIC TRADITIONS AND THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT: CONFRONTATION OR COOPERATION

ISLAMIC TRADITIONS AND THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT: CONFRONTATION OR COOPERATION?
By Dr. Lois Lamya' al Faruqi


Whether living in the Middle East or Africa, in Central Asia, in Pakistan, in Southeast Asia, or in Europe and the Americas, Muslim women tend to view the feminist movement with some apprehension. Although there are some features of the feminist cause with which we as Muslims would wish to join hands, other features generate our disappointment and even opposition. There is therefore no simple or "pat" answer to the question of the future cooperation or competition which feminism may meet in an Islamic environment.

There are however a number of social, psychological, and economic traditions which govern the thinking of most Muslims and which are particularly affective of woman's status and role in Islamic society. Understanding these can help us understand the issues which affect male and female status and roles, and how we should react to movements which seek to improve the situation of women in any of the countries where Muslims live.

THE FAMILY SYSTEM

One of the Islamic traditions which will affect the way in which Muslim women respond to feminist ideas is the advocacy in Islamic culture of an extended rather than a nuclear family system. Some Muslim families are "residentially extended" - that is, their members live communally with three or more generations of relatives (grandparents, parents, uncles, aunts, and their offspring) in a single building or compound. Even when this residential version of the extended family is not possible or adhered to, family connections reaching far beyond the nuclear unit are evident in strong psychological, social, economic, and even political ties. Mutual supports and responsibilities affecting these larger consanguine groups are not just considered desirable, but they are made legally incumbent on members of the society by Islamic law. The Holy Quran itself exhorts to extended family solidarity; in addition it specifies the extent of such responsibilities and contains prescriptive measures for inheritance, support, and other close interdependencies within the extended family.[1]

Our Islamic traditions also prescribe a much stronger participation of the family in the contracting and preservation of marriages. While most Western feminists would decry family participation or arranged marriage as a negative influence because of its apparent restriction of individualistic freedom and responsibility, as Muslims we would argue that such participation is advantageous for both individuals and groups within the society. Not only does it ensure marriages based on sounder principles than physical attraction and sexual infatuation, but it provides other safeguards for successful marital continuity. Members of the family provide diverse companionship as well as ready sources of advice and sympathy for the newly married as they adjust to each others' way. One party of the marriage cannot easily pursue an eccentric course at the expense of the spouse since such behavior would rally opposition from the larger group. Quarrels are never so devastating to the marriage bond since other adult family members act as mediators and provide alternative sources of companionship and counsel following disagreements. The problems of parenting and generational incompatibility are also alleviated, and singles clubs and dating bureaus would be unnecessary props for social interaction. There is no need in the extended family for children of working parents to be unguarded, unattended, or inadequately loved and socialized because the extended family home is never empty. There is therefore no feeling of guilt which the working parent often feels in a nuclear or single-parent organization. Tragedy, even divorce, is not so debilitating to either adults or children since the larger social unit absorbs the residual numbers with much greater ease than a nuclear family organization can ever provide.

The move away from the cohesiveness which the family formerly enjoyed in Western society, the rise of usually smaller alternative family styles, and the accompanying rise in individualism which many feminists advocate or at least practice, are at odds with these deep-rooted Islamic customs and traditions. If feminism in the Muslim world chooses to espouse the Western family models, it should and would certainly be strongly challenged by Muslim women's groups and by Islamic society as a whole.

INDIVIDUALISM VS. THE LARGER ORGANIZATION

The traditional support of the large and intricately interrelated family organization is correlative to another Islamic tradition which seems to run counter to recent Western trends and to feminist ideology. Islam and Muslim women generally advocate molding of individual goals and interests to accord with the welfare of the larger group and its members. Instead of holding the goals of the individual supreme, Islam instills in the adherent a sense of his or her place within the family and of a responsibility to that group. This is not perceived or experienced by Muslims as repression of the individual. Other traditions which will be discussed later guarantee his or her legal personality. Feminism, therefore, would not be espoused by Muslim women as a goal to be pursued without regard for the relation of the female to the other members of her family. The Muslim woman regards her goals as necessitating a balance with, or even subordination to, those of the family group. The rampant individualism often experienced in contemporary life, that which treats the goals of the individual in isolation from other factors, or as utterly supreme, runs against a deep Islamic commitment to social interdependence.

DIFFERENTIATION OF SEX ROLES

A third Islamic tradition which affects the future of any feminist movement in an Islamic environment is that it specifies a differentiation of male and female roles and responsibilities in society. Feminism, as represented in Western society, has generally denied any such differentiation and has demanded a move toward a unisex society in order to achieve equal rights for women. By "unisex society," I mean one in which a single set of roles and concerns are given preference and esteem by both sexes and are pursued by all members of the society regardless of sex and age differentials. In the case of Western feminism, the preferred goals have been those traditionally fulfilled by the male members of society. The roles of providing financial support, of success in career, and of decision making have been given overwhelming respect and concern while those dealing with domestic matters, with child care, with aesthetic and psychological refreshment, with social interrelationships, were devalued and even despised. Both men and women have been forced into a single mold which is perhaps more restrictive, rigid and coercive than that which formerly assigned men to one type of role and women to another.

This is a new brand of male chauvenism with which Islamic traditions cannot conform. Islam instead maintains that both types of roles are equally deserving of pursuit and respect and that when accompanied by the equity demanded by the religion, a division of labor along sex lines is generally beneficial to all members of the society.

This might be regarded by the feminist as opening the door to discrimination, but as Muslims we regard Islamic traditions as standing clearly and unequivocally for the support of male-female equity. In the Quran, no difference whatever is made between the sexes in relation to God.

"For men who submit [to God] and for women who submit [to God], for believing men and believing women, for devout men and devout women, for truthful men and truthful women, for steadfast men and steadfast women, for humble men and humble women, for charitable men and charitable women, for men who fast and women who fast, for men who guard their chastity and women who guard, for men who remember God much and for women who remember - for them God has prepared forgiveness and a mighty reward" (33:35). "Whoever performs good deeds, whether male or female and is a believer, We shall surely make him live a good life and We will certainly reward them for the best of what they did" (16:97).[2]

It is only in relation to each other and society that a difference is made - a difference of role or function. The rights and responsibilities of a woman are equal to those of a man, but they are not necessarily identical with them. Equality and identity are two different things, Islamic traditions maintain - the former desirable, the latter not. Men and women should therefore be complementary to each other in a multi-function organization rather than competitive with each other in a uni-function society.

The equality demanded by Islamic traditions must, however, be seen in its larger context if it is to be understood properly. Since Muslims regard a differentiation of sexual roles to be natural and desirable in the majority of cases, the economic responsibilities of male and female members differ to provide a balance for the physical differences between men and women and for the greater responsibility which women carry in the reproductive and rearing activities so necessary to the well-being of the society. To maintain, therefore, that the men of the family are responsible for providing economically for the women or that women are not equally responsible, is not a dislocation or denial of sexual equity. It is instead a duty to be fulfilled by men as compensation for another responsibility which involves the special ability of women. Likewise the different inheritance rates for males and females, which is so often sited as an example of discrimination against women, must not be seen as an isolated prescription.[3] It is but one part of a comprehensive system in which women carry no legal responsibility to support other members of the family, but in which men are bound by law as well as custom to provide for all their female relatives.

Does this mean that Islamic traditions necessarily prescribe maintaining the status quo in the Islamic societies that exist today? The answer is a definite "No." Many thinking Muslims - both men and women - would agree that their societies do not fulfill the Islamic ideals and traditions laid down in the Quran and reinforced by the example and directives of the Prophet Muhammad, salallahu alehi wasallam. It is reported in the Quran and from history that women not only expressed their opinions freely in the Prophet's presence but also argued and participated in serious discussions with the Prophet himself and with other Muslim leaders of the time (58:1). Muslim women are known to have even stood in opposition to certain caliphs, who later accepted the sound arguments of those women. A specific example took place during the caliphate of 'Umar ibn al Khattab.[4] The Quran reproached those who believed woman to be inferior to men (16:57-59) and repeatedly gives expression to the need for treating men and women with equity (2:228, 231; 4:19, and so on). Therefore, if Muslim women experience discrimination in any place or time, they do not and should not lay the blame on Islam, but on the un-Islamic nature of their societies and the failure of Muslims to fulfill its directives.

SEPARATE LEGAL STATUS FOR WOMEN

A fourth Islamic tradition affecting the future of feminism in Muslim societies is the separate legal status for women which is demanded by the Quran and the Shari'ah. Every Muslim individual, whether male of female, retains a separate identity from cradle to grave. This separate legal personality prescribes for every woman the right to contract, to conduct business, to earn and possess property independently. Marriage has no effect on her legal status, her property, her earnings - or even on her name. If she commits any civil offense, her penalty is no less or no more than a man's in a similar case (5:83; 24:2). If she is wronged or harmed, she is entitled to compensation just like a man (4:92-93; see also Mustafa al Siba'i 1976:38; Darwazah n.d.:78). The feminist demand for separate legal status for women is therefore one that is equally espoused by Islamic traditions.

POLYGYNY

Although the taking of plural wives by a man is commonly called polygamy, the more correct sociological designation is polygyny. This institution is probably the Islamic tradition most misunderstood and vehemently condemned by non-Muslims. It is one which the Hollywood stereotypes "play upon" in their ridicule of Islamic society. The first image conjured up in the mind of the Westerner when the subject of Islam and marriage is approached is that of a religion which advocates the sexual indulgence of the male members of the society and the subjugation of its females through this institution.

Islamic tradition does indeed allow a man to marry more than one woman at a time. This leniency is even established by the Quran (4:3).[5] But the use and perception of that institution is far from the Hollywood stereotype. Polygyny is certainly not imposed by Islam; nor is it a universal practice. It is instead regarded as the exception to the norm of monogamy , and its exercise is strongly controlled by social pressures.[6] If utilized by Muslim men to facilitate or condone sexual promiscuity, it is not less Islamically condemnable than serial polygyny and adultery, and no less detrimental to the society. Muslims view polygyny as an institution which is to be called into use only under extraordinary circumstances. As such, it has not been generally regarded by Muslim women as a threat. Attempts by the feminist movement to focus on eradication of this institution in order to improve the status of women would therefore meet with little sympathy or support.

II. DIRECTIVES FOR THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT IN AN ISLAMIC ENVIRONMENT

What can be learned about the future compatibility or incongruity of feminism in a Muslim environment from these facts about Islamic traditions? Are there any general principles to be gained, any directives to be taken, by those who work for women's rights and human rights in the world?

INTERCULTURAL INCOMPATIBILITY OF WESTERN FEMINISM

The first and foremost principle would seem to be that many of the goals of feminism as conceived in Western society are not necessarily relevant or exportable across cultural boundaries. Feminism as a Western movement originated in England during the 18th century and had as one of its main goals the eradication of legal disabilities imposed upon women by English common law. These laws were especially discriminatory of married women. They derived in part from Biblical sources (e.g., the idea of man and woman becoming "one flesh," and the attribution of an inferior and even evil nature to Eve and all her female descendants) and in part from feudal customs (e.g., the importance of carrying and supplying arms for battle and the concomitant devaluation of the female contributions to society). The Industrial Revolution and its need for women's contribution to the work force brought strength to the feminist movement and helped its advocates gradually break down most of those discriminatory laws.

Since the history and heritage of Muslim peoples have been radically different from that of Western Europe and America, the feminism which would appeal to Muslim women and to the society generally must be correspondingly different. Those legal rights which Western women sought in reform of English common law were already granted to Muslim women in the 7th century. Such a struggle therefore holds little interest for the Muslim woman. In addition, it would be useless to try to interest us in ideas or reforms that run in diametrical opposition to those traditions which form an important part of our cultural and religious heritage. There has been a good deal of opposition to any changes in Muslim personal status laws since these embody and reinforce the very traditions which we have been discussing. In other words, if feminism is to succeed in an Islamic environment, it must be an indigenous form of feminism, rather than one conceived and nurtured in an alien environment with different problems and different solutions and goals.

THE FORM OF AN ISLAMIC FEMINISM

If the goals of Western feminism are not viable for Muslim women, what form should a feminist movement take to ensure success?

Above all, the movement must recognize that, whereas in the West, the mainstream of the women's movement has viewed religion as one of the chief enemies of its progress and well-being, Muslim women view the teachings of Islam as their best friend and supporter. The prescriptions that are found in the Quran and in the example of the Prophet Muhammad, salallahu alehi wasallam, are regarded as the ideal to which contemporary women wish to return. As far as Muslim women are concerned, the source of any difficulties experienced today is not Islam and its traditions, but certain alien ideological intrusions on our societies, ignorance, and distortion of the true Islam, or exploitation by individuals within the society. It is a lack of an appreciation for this fact that caused such misunderstanding and mutual distress when women's movement representatives from the West visited Iran both before and after the Islamic Revolution.

Second, any feminism which is to succeed in an Islamic environment must be one which does not work chauvenistically for women's interest alone. Islamic traditions would dictate that women's progress be achieved in tandem with the wider struggle to benefit all members of the society. The good of the group or totality is always more crucial than the good of any one sector of the society. In fact, the society is seen as an organic whole in which the welfare of each member or organ is necessary for the health and well being of every other part. Disadventagous circumstances of women therefore should always be countered in conjunction with attempt to alleviate those factors which adversely affect men and other segments of the society.

Third, Islam is an ideology which influences much more than the ritual life of a people. It is equally affective of their social, political, economic, psychological, and aesthetic life. "Din," which is usually regarded as an equivalent for the English term "religion," is a concept which includes, in addition to those ideas and practices customarily associated in our minds with religion, a wide spectrum of practices and ideas which affect almost every aspect of the daily life of the Muslim individual. Islam and Islamic traditions therefore are seen today by many Muslims as the main source of cohesiveness for nurturing an identity and stability to confront intruding alien influences and the cooperation needed to solve their numerous contemporary problems. To fail to note this fact, or to fail to be fully appreciative of its importance for the average Muslim - whether male or female - would be to commit any movement advocating improvement of women's position in Islamic lands to certain failure. It is only through establishing that identity and stability that self-respect can be achieved and a more healthy climate for both Muslim men and Muslim women will emerge.

NOTES

[1]. For example, see Quran 2:177; 4:7,176; 8:41; 16:90; 17:26; 24:22.

[2]. See also Quran 2:195; 4:124,32; 9:71-72.

[3]. "God (thus) directs you as regards your children's (inheritance): to the male, a proportion equal to that of two females..." (Quran 4:11).

[4]. Kamal 'Awn 1955:129.

[5]. "... Marry women of your choice, two, or three, or four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one, or (a captive) that your right hands possess. That will be more suitable, to prevent you from doing injustice."

[6]. It should be remembered that any woman who wants her marriage to remain monogamous can provide for this condition under Islamic law.